Japanese HRM Analysis and The Lessons of An Effective International HR manager

Japanese HRM Analysis and The Lessons of An Effective International HR manager Free Online Research Papers Japanese HRM Analysis and The Lessons of An Effective International HR manager Japan is a highly complex and dynamic society that has experienced great changes in the past 125 years, with conversion from a feudal state into a modern industrialized nation and an economic superpower (Selmer, 2001). The Japanese have appreciated Western technology, science, education and politics, while maintaining their unique cultural identity. The collectiveness of Japanese culture has been carried over to the companies, where a job means identifying with a larger entity through which one gains pride and feeling of being part of something significant (Selmer, 2001). Human resource management (HRM) has been argued by many as an important factor in the success of Japanese companies on world markets when it experienced significant economic growth during the 1980s (Pudelko, 2004). With these successions and growth, the implementation of Japanese HRM to other Western countries is highly regarded. However, the Japanese economy after forty years of growth entered a period of sustained economic decrease in the early 1990s, with greater global competition, rigid employment and business systems, and a banking system on the edge of collapse (Benson, 2004). With these events, Japanese HRM has evolved significantly, and is providing lessons for international huma n resource mangers today. Japanese HRM has attracted a significant degree of attention from the West over the years. With the relative rise in the economic fortunes of Japanese companies, many have pointed towards the Japanese style of HRM as a source of competitive advantage (Beechler, 1994). It was noted that Japanese organizations put emphasis on human resources which are reflected in three HRM strategies, including an internal labor market, a company philosophy that expresses concerns for employee needs, and focus on cooperation and teamwork in a unique company environment (Beecher, 1994). With these three general Japanese HRM strategies, techniques of open communication, job rotation and internal training, a competitive appraisal system, importance of group work, consultative decision making, and concerns for employees are expressed. Also, Japanese firms use careful screening of job candidates to ensure that the qualifications fit with the value system and corporate culture of the business firm. With Jap anese style HRM, there are practices of job rotation, seniority based wages, long-term employment, implicit performance evaluation, hiring of graduates that receive extensive training and socialization into the company, team based employee activities, and a relatively small gap between white-collar and blue-collar workers in terms of benefits, salary and on-the-job perquisites. A notable characteristic of the economy is the cooperation of manufacturers, suppliers and distributors in closely knit groups called keiretsu. The keiretsu system is the framework of relationships in postwar Japans major banks and major firms. Related companies organized around a big bank, such as Mitsui, Mitsubishi, and Sumitomo, who have a large amount of equity in one another and in the banks (Dedoussis, 2001). The keiretsu system has the virtue of maintaining long term business relationships and stability in suppliers and customers. The keiretsu system has the disadvantage of reacting slowly to outside events since the players are partly protected from the external market. However, keiretsu relationships have helped members to share risks while allowing Japans large-scale enterprises to achieve considerable insulation from market forces (Dedoussis, 2001). Also, keiretsus can provide significant scale economies, highly incorporated vertical relationships, networking that confines competition, considerable foreign direct investment and important governmental influence. The political power in Japan is in the command of the twenty-one government ministries, which includes the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) (Keys et al, 1994). The Japanese political elites have played a critical role in choosing, from available local and foreign cultural options, those which are best suited to their needs. The high-growth economy of postwar Japan formed a unique style of capitalism in which managers and employees, rather than shareholders, were the key stakeholders of a company (Mizutani, 2003). However, Japans greatest recession since the post-second world war has stressed relationships among keiretsu members as key firms are forced to end established links with minor companies (Dedoussis, 2001).The breakdown of the keiretsu system of cross-shareholding and favored trading among member corporations of a business group has severely harmed the safety net of supporting the long-term growth strategy of Japanese firms and their ability to protect employees from downside market risks (Selmer, 2001; Gerlach, 1992). Deregulation is another force for change and has made Japanese markets more accessible to competitors, both foreign and domestic. In protected industries such as financial services, distribution and agriculture, there are only a few firms that are prepared for the challenge of competition and uncertainty (Lincoln and Nakata, 1997). Changes have been made in the cultural aspects of Japanese human resource management. Individual performance and results-oriented performance are replacing group performance and loyalty due to the new criteria for creating salary levels, with the principle of ‘freedom and self-responsibility for the independent individual (Takashi, 2003; Sanford, 1995). In a survey conducted by PricewaterhouseCoopers Global Human Resource Solutions in the metropolitan Tokyo, it was examined that there has been a movement from a more traditional, collective/company orientation toward more self-orientation (Brislin, 2005). This new development can be seen as one element leading to a major shift in the depths of Japanese corporate society (Takashi, 2003) .The salary systems that link annual compensation to the attainment of company targets are now found in several Japanese firms. These changes in the salary system are in line with the development of the dual-promotion system which is distinguished between management responsibilities and titles on the one hand, and status and pay on the other hand. The aim is to make a transition from time-based promotion to performance-based promotion, an evolution in the Japanese HRM practices. There have also been changes to careers, recruitment and long-term employment. Formal management and supervisory training is gradually replacing informal on-the-job training (Selmer, 2001). There have also been other changes in Japanese management practices including cutbacks in bonuses and overtime payments. However, the significant characteristics of Japanese management, such as lifetime employment and the seniority system, appear to be resistant from change. The importance of long-term employment is to allow Japanese firms to apply technological innovation, which is facilitated and supported by the long term cultivation of employee skills through cross training (Drucker, 1981). However, due to the developments, retrenchments are now included in restructuring plans of Japanese firms. The seniority system is also an issue as there are not enough positions available to accommodate employees following the economic decline during the years. Long-term employment promotes harmonious ac tion and a sense of unity with a positive effect combined with Japans cultural background, as close human relationships are formed and community awareness increases when workers are employed over long periods (Baba, 2004). If employees are uncertain whether they may be laid off or not, labor relations become unstable and cooperative relationships are difficult to establish. In societies like Japan, in which a culture of encouraging cooperation has developed, a synergistic effect works through long-term employment and major benefits can be expected (Baba, 2004). The issue of the continued existence of unique Japanese human resources management practices has regained attention as Japanese firms feel the impact of the countrys economic battles. The perspective that Japanese management is fading does not appear to be completely unsupported as few of the human resources management practices have escaped change. Firms are decreasing the number of new recruits with structural shifts evident in recruitment as there is a growing emphasis on hiring experienced employees with specialist skills rather than inexperienced graduates from top universities. Also, external recruitment is increasing among employees indicating the removal of internal promotion, which is a development in Japanese HRM. Evolution has also taken place in areas of labor relations. In the past, Japanese enterprise based unions (kigyo-nai kumiai) have had a positive outlook in respect to salary negotiations with preference on job security for their members (Selmer, 2001). These unions would assure supportive behavior by their members, in exchange for proper behavior by companies and with the integration of the firms training, wage setting, and redundancy systems. Also, firms could depend on the role of planned business as a last option, if the union did not commit to its side of the agreement. This has now changed as there is a simultaneous breakdown of the traditional trade unions, business associations and keiretsu networks. Presently, there is much doubt as to whether either side will remain in the relationship. Middle managers are now the targets of de-layering processes who feel a growing need to defend their concerns (Selmer, 2001). In contrast, the Trade Union Law in Japan only identifies unions as representing the interests of the employers, and more groups may form inside the companies to defend the interest of the center white-collar employees and their long employment contract. The system of company based unions may be harshly destabilized if such groups extend outside companies to become horizontal regional or national white-collar unions. With this, non-union employee representation may also pose a threat to the traditional enterprise-based unions. However, Japanese firms have dedicated much effort into developing a system of participation in their management techniques by using non-union representation practices resourcefully and effectively to form and develop employee representation in deci sion making (Selmer, 2001). There are two types of employee associations with almost one-third that are voice-oriented organizations, and the remaining two-thirds that focus on recreational activities (Sato, 1997). The voice-oriented employee associations regularly converse industrial planning and working conditions with management, and managers typically value their functions of comprehensive and communicating views of employees. Also Japanese labor relations may be affected by many changing environmental forces such as the internationalization of the economy, the rapidly aging population, the acceleration of technological innovations, and changes in the values of the younger generation (Selmer, 2001). These are some developments in the evolution of human resources in Japan in terms of labor relations today. With all the developments emerged through the evolution of Japanese HRM, the lessons that have been provided to International HR managers are valuable. As Japanese HR practices are highly regarded and often taken as a reason for outstanding success in their economy, the true effect and implication of these practices is often debated when implementing the same strategies in Western countries. For an international HR manager, there are certain aspects that must be considered in order to be successful. Managers need to take into consideration the differences in culture. For example, Japanese managers make an active commitment to preserve harmony and there is a high emphasis placed on group work. However, due to the changes in Japanese HRM, managers must be aware of the shift towards a more individualist behavior. Although the reaction of Japanese and Western firms to economic difficulty may appear similar in some respects, Japanese firms appreciate considerable flexibility in the manage ment of human resources due to a more favorable environment (Clardy, 2003). International HR managers should also consider the impact of governments and labor relations when making decisions. It can be seen with Japan that the effect of these elements has greatly impacted the process of human resource management in the country as unions have changed their methods of action. The evolution of HRM practices in Japan has been seen to be quite extensive. Since the recession, there have been gradual changes in the cultural behaviors displayed by Japanese employees. Japanese employees have moved from a traditional and collective orientation toward more individualistic and self-orientation. Although special characteristics of Japanese HRM, such as lifetime employment and the seniority system, are somewhat resistant to change, there have been developments in the recruitment practices as preference is now given to individuals with experience, rather then the norm of molding graduates. Also, there has been a breakdown in the union and labor relations, with an emergence of non-union threats and division of support systems. For an International human resource manager, it is beneficial to take into considerations the lessons established by the evolution of Japanese HRM as it offers a greater quantity of information and scope into the global HR operations of Japanese firms. Also, it provides an interesting and more universal assessment of the challenges involved in managing cross-culturally and the importance of successful diversity management. These are some of the elements that make an effective international human resources manager and provide a competitive advantage. REFERENCES Baba, S. (2004). Remodelling Employment for Competitive Advantage: What will follow Japans Lifetime employment?. Asian Business Management: Japan Society of Business Administration (JBSA). Vol.3, Iss.2, p. 221-240. Beechler, S., and Yang, J. (1994). The transfer of Japanese-style management to American subsidiaries: Contingencies, constraints, and competencies Journal of International Business Studies. Vol.25, Iss 3, pg. 467, 25. Benson, J. and Debroux, P. (2004). The Changing Nature of Japanese Human Resource Management: The Impact of the Recession and the Asian Financial Crisis. International Studies of Management Organization White Plains. Vol. 34, Iss.1, p. 32-51. Brislin, R., et al (2005). Evolving Perceptions of Japanese Workplace Motivation: An Employee-Manager Comparison. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management : CCM London. Vol.5, Iss.1, p. 87-104 (18 pp.). Clardy, A. (2003). International Human Resource Management in Japanese Firms. Personnel Psychology Durham. Vol.56, Iss.1, p. 245-248 (4 pp.). Dedoussis, V. (2001) Keiretsu and management practices in Japan resilience amid change. Journal of Managerial Psychology. Vol.16, Iss.2, p. 173-188. Drucker, P.F. (1981). Behind Japan’s success. Harvard Business Review. Vol. 49, Iss.2, pp.83-90. Gerlach, M. (1992), Twilight of the keiretsu: a critical assessment. Journal of Japanese Studies, Vol. 18, pp. 79-118. Keys, J., Denton, L.T. Miller, T.R. (1994). The Japanese Management Theory Jungle-Revisited. Journal of Management. Vol.20, Iss.2, pp.373-402. Lincoln, J.R. and Nakata, Y. (1997), The transformation of the Japanese employment system. Work and Occupations. Vol. 24 No. 1, pp. 33-55. Mizutani, E. (2003). Japan: Renewing HR management via organizational values management. Benefits Compensation International. Vol.33, Iss.3, p. 3-7. Pudelko, M. (2004). HRM in Japan and the West: What are the lessons to be learnt from each other?. Asian Business Management, Vol.3, Iss.3, pp.337. Salmer, J. (2001). Human resource management in Japan- Adjustment or transformation?. International Journal of Manpower, Vol 22, Iss.3, pp.235-242. Sanford, J. (1995). Recent organizational developments in Japan. British Journal of Industrial Relations. Vol.33, Iss.4, pp. 645-50. Sato, H. (1997), Labor-management rlations in small and medium-sized enterprises, in Sako, M. and Sato, H. (Eds). Japanese Labor and Management in Transition: Diversity, Flexibility, and Participation, Routledge, London. pp. 315-31. Takashi, W. (2003). Recent Trends in Japanese Human Resource Management: The Introduction of a System of Individual and Independent Career Choice. Asian Business Management. Vol.2, Iss.1, p. 111. Research Papers on Japanese HRM Analysis and The Lessons of An Effective International HR managerPETSTEL analysis of IndiaDefinition of Export QuotasAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaOpen Architechture a white paperThe Project Managment Office SystemMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductTwilight of the UAWBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married Males

Ciudadanía de los Estados Unidos por los abuelos

Ciudadanà ­a de los Estados Unidos por los abuelos Entre los caminos que existen para adquirir la ciudadanà ­a americana, uno es por derecho de sangre que se deriva a travà ©s de los abuelos. Esto aplica al caso de nià ±os nacidos fuera de Estados Unidos  que son hijos de padre o madre ciudadano americano pero estos no cumplen los requisitos para transmitirles la nacionalidad en el momento del nacimiento. Al mismo tiempo, estos nià ±os residen habitualmente en un paà ­s distinto a los Estados Unidos. Por ejemplo, una seà ±ora americana vive desde que nace hasta los 24 aà ±os en Estados Unidos. Viaja al extranjero y se queda a vivir allà ­, donde forma una familia. Su hijo nacido en el extranjero va a ser americano desde el momento de su nacimiento. Y este nià ±o siempre vive en el paà ­s en el que ha nacido, con o sin viajes espordicos a Estados Unidos. Con el paso de los aà ±os ese hijo  se convierte en adulto y tiene un hijo. Este infante (nieto de ciudadana americana), no es americano por nacimiento, a pesar de ser hijo de un estadounidense. Para estos casos y similares aplica el supuesto que se explica en este artà ­culo a continuacià ³n. Requisitos para adquirir la ciudadana por uno de los abuelos Se deben cumplir TODOS los requisitos siguientes: El nià ±o ha de ser menor de 18 aà ±os de edad y soltero Tiene que vivir habitualmente fuera de los Estados Unidos y con su padre o madre que es ciudadano, quien debe tener su custodia legal, en solitario o compartida con el otro progenitor. la à ºnica excepcià ³n es en el caso de que haya fallecido. En este caso el progenitor que sobrevive o el guardin legal deben no oponerse a que el nià ±o adquiera la ciudadanà ­a de USA por un abuelo.El padre o la madre del nià ±o deben ser ciudadanos americanos. Es indiferente cà ³mo adquirieron esa condicià ³n.  El abuelo o la abuela tienen que ser ciudadano  en el momento en el que se solicita la ciudadanà ­a para el nieto o nieta. Si ha fallecido, debe probarse que lo era en el momento de su fallecimiento.Adems, debe poder demostrar con documentacià ³n que el abuelo o abuela ha residido en Estados Unidos por un mà ­nimo de cinco aà ±os, de los que al menos dos ha tenido que ser despuà ©s de haber cumplido los 14. Si ha falle cido, este requisito debe haberse cumplido antes de la fecha de fallecimiento. El tiempo no tiene que ser seguido. Es suficiente sumar el total del periodo que se pide. En el caso de militares, los tiempos de presencia en Estados Unidos se computan de una manera especial. Tramitacin de la solicitud de ciudadana para el nieto En estos casos, los nià ±os no adquieren la ciudadanà ­a de forma automtica. Es necesaria realizar una tramitacià ³n que debe completarse en los Estados Unidos. Para ello es necesario que el infante ingrese legalmente al paà ­s. Generalmente lo har con una visa de turista pero puede hacerlo con cualquiera otra. Destacar que los consulados no estn obligados a aprobar visas. Conceden las visas si se cumplen los requisitos especà ­ficos de cada uno de ellas.   Una vez en Estados Unidos, el nià ±o debe mantener en todo momento presencia legal. Esto es muy importante y tener claro la fecha mxima para permanecer legalmente en el paà ­s.   A continuacià ³n debe llenarse la planilla  N-600K, que debe ser firmada por el progenitor que es ciudadano americano. Si el progenitor ha fallecido, podr hacerlo el abuelo ciudadano o el progenitor sobreviviente. En este caso tener en cuenta que no pueden haber pasado ms de cinco aà ±os a contar desde el dà ­a en que fallecià ³ el padre o madre ciudadano. Tambià ©n hay que pagar el arancel correspondiente, adjuntar en inglà ©s toda la documentacià ³n de apoyo que se pide. Documentos que hay que enviar con la planilla N-600K Todos los documentos en un idioma distinto al inglà ©s tienen que ser traducidos y acompaà ±ados por un certificado de traduccià ³n. Entre los documentos que se necesita adjuntar estn: Certificado de nacimiento del nià ±o.Si los padres estn casados, los certificados de matrimonio. Si previamente han estado casados, los certificados de divorcio o de viudedad que puso fin al anterior matrimonio.  Si los padres no estn casados y el ciudadano es el padre, documento que acredite la legitimacià ³n del hijo.En los casos de separacià ³n o divorcio, documento que acredite que se tiene la custodia legal sobre el menor.Documento que acredite la ciudadanà ­a del padre o madre y la del abuelo o abuela.  Documentos que acrediten que el abuelo o abuela cumple con los requisitos de presencia de cinco aà ±os en Estados Unidos o sus territorios de los cuales dos han tenido que ser despuà ©s de cumplir los 14 aà ±os. El tiempo no tiene que ser continuo. Y si el abuelo o abuela adquirieron la ciudadanà ­a despuà ©s de nacer, tambià ©n se puede computar el tiempo transcurrido en Estados Unidos con un estatus diferente al de ciudadano.  Documentos que acredite que el inf ante est legalmente en los Estados Unidos, como copia de la visa y del I-94.   Evidencia que demuestre cambios legales de nombres y/o apellidos, si los hubiera habido. Tener en cuenta que si previamente se ha enviado al USCIS esta documentacià ³n en relacià ³n a la peticià ³n de una tarjeta de residencia para el hijo por parte de un ciudadano americano, entonces no ser necesario volverla a enviar. Adems, tener presente que para el cà ³mputo de presencia se considera Estados Unidos y sus territorios cualquiera de los 50 estados de la Unià ³n Americana, Puerto Rico, Samoa, Guam, Islas Và ­rgenes Americanas y las Islas Marianas del Norte.   Qu documentos sirven para acreditar presencia en los Estados Unidos? En realidad, cualquiera que sirva para demostrar este requisito. Los que ms frecuentemente se aceptan son: Rà ©cords mà ©dicos, militares o de escuela.Recibos de pago de hipotecas, alquileres, electricidad, seguros, etc. Contratos de todo tipoPrueba de haber trabajado como el W-2.Pago de impuestos (tax returns) Escrituras de propiedad Declaraciones juradas de miembros de iglesias, sindicatos (union) u otro tipo de organizaciones. Direccin a la que se enva la papelera USCISP.O. Box 20100Phoenix, AZ 85036 O por correo urgente a: USCISAttn: Form N-600K1820 E. Skyharbor Circle SSuite 100Phoenix, AZ 85034 Los militares deben aplicar al centro del USCIS en Lincoln, Nebraska. Entrevista, juramento, ciudadana y pasaporte Es posible que durante la tramitacià ³n de la naturalizacià ³n, el nià ±o y su abuelo ciudadano tengan que ir a una oficina del USCIS a una entrevista. Sin embargo, es posible que Inmigracià ³n determine que no es necesaria por tener ya toda la documentacià ³n necesaria para probar que el infante es elegible para este derecho.   Si el USCIS considera que se cumplen todos los requisitos y se reconoce la ciudadanà ­a al menor, à ©ste tendr que prestar el juramento de lealtad a los Estados Unidos (Oath of Allegiance) si ya ha cumplido los 14 aà ±os de edad. Si es ms pequeà ±o se considera que no tiene capacidad para entenderlo y, por lo tanto, no se pide que cumpla con esta obligacià ³n. Cuando se recibe el Certificado de Ciudadanà ­a ya se es ciudadano. A partir de ahà ­ ya se puede solicitar un Nà ºmero del Seguro Social y un pasaporte para el menor. Respecto a esto à ºltimo, tener en cuenta las reglas de la presencia de ambos padres. Adems, informarse sobre los documentos que puede utilizar un estadounidense para ingresar y salir del paà ­s y quà © tipo de documentacià ³n se pide cuando un menor viaja internacionalmente solo o en compaà ±Ãƒ ­a de solamente uno de los padres. Qu sucede cuando el USCIS no aprueba la peticin Si el gobierno considera que no se reà ºnen todos los requisitos enumerados en las leyes, asà ­ lo comunicar por carta notificando la razà ³n para la negativa. A partir de ahà ­ se tiene un plazo de 30 dà ­as para apelar la decisià ³n. Ley que regula este derecho La seccià ³n 322 de la Ley de Naturalizacià ³n e Inmigracià ³n (INA, siglas en inglà ©s) regula los derechos de los nià ±os nacidos en el extranjeros que pueden tener derecho a la ciudadanà ­a americana. Tambià ©n es fundamental para la adquisicià ³n de la ciudadanà ­a por los abuelos la Ley de Ciudadanà ­a para nià ±os o Child Citizenship Act (CCA, por sus siglas en inglà ©s) del aà ±o 2000 y que entrà ³ en vigor el 27 de febrero de 2001. Hay que tener siempre en cuenta que es frecuente que las leyes sufran reformas con el paso del tiempo, como le ha pasado a la INA en numerosas ocasiones. Por lo tanto, muchas veces conviene informarse no sà ³lo de lo que aplica ahora sino tambià ©n de lo que aplicaba en el momento en el que una persona nacià ³ y ver si esa situacià ³n, si es beneficiosa, puede todavà ­a reclamar o ya no. Tip Si una persona tiene dudas sobre si es ciudadana americana o no, siempre puede marcar al 1-800-375-5283. Tambià ©n se puede escribir un correo electrà ³nico a: askpristate.gov. O se puede contratar los servicios de un abogado de inmigracià ³n experto en asuntos de ciudadanà ­a y naturalizacià ³n. A tener en cuenta Este derecho se deriva de abuelo o abuela. Y tambià ©n es indiferente si se trata por el lado materno o el paterno.  Asimismo, los nià ±os que se pueden beneficiar son tanto los varones como las mujeres. No hay distincià ³n por razà ³n de sexo. En el caso de militares, verificar las reglas especiales que aplican para contabilizar el tiempo residido en Estados Unidos. Tambià ©n aplican para ellos reglas especiales sobre la presencia fà ­sica del menor en Estados Unidos durante la tramitacià ³n de la naturalizacià ³n. Por à ºltimo, si el và ­nculo entre el progenitor ciudadano y el hijo es por adopcià ³n, informarse sobre todos los casos posibles.   Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal para ningà ºn caso en particular.